The Importance Of The Renaissance - 937 Words

The Renaissance was a time where people decided to experiment with new forms of art, architecture, and learning. Many famous names in the art world stem from the Renaissance such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Their amazing, detailed paintings have inspired artists globally for hundreds of years to take after them. New ways of building, seemingly impossible, became possible because of educated decisions that Renaissance thinkers were able to make due to their humanist education. Without the Renaissance, the modern world would not have the value of teaching the humanities, the importance of freedom of expression through art, and encourage creativity and problem solving. The humanities are the most important way of†¦show more content†¦In the early stages of humanism, the humanities were tailored to teach people how to govern and be part of a government. In modern times, the purpose of the humanities is to teach people life skills and to set them up with the necessary education to pursue any career they might want. It is interesting how a movement started in the Early Renaissance, a time where very few people were educated, could lead to mandatory education for all people under the age of 16 in modern times. Without the Renaissance, it is plausible to think that the world would be as uneducated as the people in pre-Renaissance times. Without the humanities, people would have been left to learn what the Church was telling them which was obviously wrong. The humanities taught people to be true Renaissance thinkers, which allowed them to study the world in a non-religious way and learn true scientific facts; they then disproved the augmented f acts presented by the Church. Without Renaissance artists, people would not use their freedom of expression to its full capacity and people would not strive to be creative and have their own ideas. The Renaissance was an artistically experimental time, in the sense that artists were taking old styles and putting modern twists on them. Before the Renaissance, expressing any opposition to a person in power or simply saying something that a person in aShow MoreRelatedImportance Of The Renaissance828 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscussion, is Arthur Erickson’s above. It summarises why the Renaissance was such a remarkable period of discovery and advancement for mankind. There were a series of revolutionary steps forward in the medical field. Many new scientific discoveries and cures were found and equally fascinating, at the same time many established techniques and theories dating back to medieval times were proven incorrect and abandoned. Also during the Renaissance, there were a range of radical engineering and m echanicalRead MoreThe Importance Of The During The Renaissance1843 Words   |  8 PagesThe Importance Of Military in the Renaissance The Renaissance was a time of great advancements and the bridging of the medieval era to the modern era. Along with technological advancements there were advances socially which changed the feudal mindset and militarily. Military shaped the age we call the Renaissance. The military shaped the land borders of countries such as France, Russia, The United Kingdom, Sweden and Austria through conquest. What made the militaries of these important countriesRead MoreThe Importance Of The Renaissance And Why Is It Important?1965 Words   |  8 Pages What is the Renaissance and Why is it Important? â€Å"In Discussion: The Renaissance† â€Å"What a piece of work is a man! . . . in form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel.† –William Shakespeare, from Hamlet. At the core of Pater s study of the Renaissance lies the maxim l art pour l art, or art for art s sake. Originally championed by nineteenth-century French aesthetes, this notion of art as an end in itself helped shape Pater s conception of a life dedicated to aestheticRead MoreThe Importance of the Renaissance to the Reformation in Germany1263 Words   |  6 PagesThe Importance of the Renaissance to the Reformation in Germany The reformation was a movement that fundamentally challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The role of the clergy was undermined and the relationships between national countries and the Roman Catholic Church were threatened. The renaissance began in Italy during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries through patronage and the flourishing society, and Rome achieved cultural prominence. It laterRead MoreThe Importance Of Physical Beauty In The Renaissance Era1571 Words   |  7 Pageschanges constantly. As a result, poems of different time periods have different perceptions of love and beauty. Ben Jonson’s â€Å"A Vision of Beauty† and Samuel Daniel’s â€Å"But love whilst that thou mayst be loved again† reflect the importance of physical beauty in love during the Renaissance Era. In the Victorian Period, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt’s â€Å"I See You Juliet† and Robert Browning’s â€Å"A Face† continue to reflect society’s fascination with female beauty in both a positive and negative way. In the Modern PeriodRead MoreThe Importance of the Medici Family in the Italian Renaissance509 Words   |  2 PagesThe Importance of the Medici Family The Italian Renaissance would not be possible if it were not for the wealthy noble families of the Italian Republics. Thanks to the ideal of patronage, nobles funded the artists, architects, and the sciences the Renaissance period of Europe spurred on the resurgence of European driven advances not seen seen since the Classical Era. While there were many Italian noble families that took on patrons, none were as good for the Renaissance as the Medici family ofRead MoreThe Decline Of Gothic And Romanesque Art1569 Words   |  7 Pagesarts. Artists, proud and inspired by the return to the importance of beauty and the enlightened society, were compelled to explore further and create beauty once more. As Italy explored new forms of art and explored new ways to express human creativity, the rest of Europe kept the international gothic style. New discoveries during the fifteenth century proved the world was more ample than previously believed and excited the ambition of Renaissance men. But to expose this beauty, artists employed moreRead MoreEssay on The Renaissance Humanistic Concept of Man994 Words   |  4 PagesThe Renaissance Humanistic Concept of Man Each century brings something new into this world. Some ages thus become prominent, others don’t seem to contribute a lot to the humanity. The Renaissance became the symbol of awakening, the symbol of excellence and rebirth. It gave birth to the doctrines and principles that dominate the philosophy up until nowadays. Humanism developed as one of the principal philosophical concepts of Renaissance. What does this concept mean, why is it so crucialRead MoreHumanism And Influence During The Renaissance1582 Words   |  7 Pages The Renaissance began in Italy during the 1300s in which a of rebirth of the arts, economy, science, and culture of Europe occurred. Before this time, during the Middle Ages, war and disease precluded advances in art and literature and the powerful influence of the Catholic church limited significant advances in science and philosophy. The Renaissance took influence from classical Greek and Rome and expressed and expanded upon many of the ideas of that time. Art became more realistic and focusedRead MoreThe Renaissance And Its Influence On The Arts And Learning Succeeding The Dark Ages862 Words   |  4 PagesThe Renaissance acutely influenced the revival and rehabilitation of enthusiasm for the arts and learning succeeding the Dark ages. The Dark Ages was a time that consisted of barbarian attacks, whose sole intent was to erase the ancient teachings. The Middle Ages differed from the time in which the Renaissance occurred. There are some main characteristics the Renaissance possessed. Galileo and Leonardo Da Vinci were pivotal to this time and their contributions were crucial to the achievement of the

Changes Throughout The Past East Asia - 1968 Words

In life change happens every day, new becomes old and there a new definition of the present. Change is the consist state of evolving and gain new values to a culture. Change has always been a part of the human race, people evolving to the future, the influence of others and hopes for change of the present state. In history culture have change so much into what they are to do. In the past East Asia have one of the most rapid changes to their society in late 19th and early 20th centuries. A change that brought the new and old together but also caused some tension. They have evolved so much, the country’s themselves, the people, culture, customs and relations. These country live in a constant state of striving to evolve, grow to become†¦show more content†¦A big transition in life and a culture cause excitement but also cause confusion for a person that feels like they are not change with the time. This feeling of confusion in this time of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in East Asia was caused by the transition from one era to another. The change was so immense that for many it was hard to grasp and realize this was the new ideal of the present society. A transition like the one in East Asia was so immense that it cause many people to feel confused, anxious, unsure of their place in society, and uncertain about how to act or feel. They might be living in different countries but they share the share resistant’s to change. This sudden change that happen so quickly is change the way there world once was. It hard to embrace change when you are still holding on to the past. In the short story â€Å"Creation† By Gladys Yang, the main character Junshi is going through this transition with society but he having a hard changing with the times and embracing the new culture. Which leaves him stuck in the middle between this two views. The author writes, â€Å"They should be broad-minded but they concentrate on outside affairs neglecting their duties at home as wives and mothers. Of course traditional ideas are no good, but unfortunately most of them have new-fangled notions which don’t make sense† (creation19). This rapid change in East Asia caused people to be in this in between state of

The Federal Program for Labor Management Free Essays

Employment has changed in the past decades because the world has changed. We’ve entered a new era, an era where the work ethic of employees, and more often the thinking and ethics of employers are many times questioned. The Federal Program for Labor Management has started as a way to provide for employees’ representation through chosen representatives, in collective bargaining with respect to personnel policies, practices and matters affecting working conditions. We will write a custom essay sample on The Federal Program for Labor Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now Also, it was created to ensure that employees who want to exercise this right and take an active part in this process have the chance to do so. The contemporary challenges in labor relations and human resources management include the care for employee rights, disciplinary policies and procedures, alternative dispute-resolution procedures, organizational ethics in employee relations or governmental regulation of labor relations. Not less important issues regard the labor relations process, structures, functions, and leadership of labor unions, the bargaining process and trends in collective bargaining, the labor agreement and administration of the labor agreement. All these form a complex discipline with the sole aim to make work relations more efficient and satisfactory for both parts. Labor relations are an important topic of human resources management. The labor agreement is a contract between a organization’s management structures and the its labor force, represented by unions, concerning aspects like wages, benefits and working conditions. Is comes in the form of written policies and procedures. The goal of this document is to create equitable work relations, in order to assure the workers’ social protection, preventing or diminishing the conflicts of interests and avoiding strikes. All aspects of the labor-management relationship are dynamic. The agreement has the role to bridge the gap between the interests of both sides. The terms of the contract are enforced by the steward (a representative of the union), acting like a policeman, constantly on the lookout. The labor agreements can be conceived at different levels: a single plant, a branch, a company or even nationally, each with its own pro’s and con’s. A master agreement is conceived for an entire company or branch, covering multiple site locations. There are several stages of a labor agreement to be discussed. First of all, the contract has to be negotiated. This is usually done once a year. Once a settlement has been made, the document has to be well understood by both parties. These requires detailed analysis of the clauses on both sides. The next step is administration. This is also the process of getting ready to renegotiate. The management must do everything in its powers to assure a reasonable and accurate administration of the contract, showing flexibility at the same time. Last but not least is the evaluation process, upon any renewal of the terms. Since most people are routine-oriented and tend to do in the future the same things they have been doing in the past, it is particularly important to look backward. Learning from history, in other words. This may guarantee successful planning of future actions. In the following, I will analyze each stage, individualizing the for and against arguments to having a master labor contract. The agreement is the written image of a give-and-take relationship. Within a company, the management faces the workers in a confrontation for the most benefits. The management has to satisfy diverse needs of the various audiences it must serve: the executive branch, the shareholders, the labor force, the public at large etc. The union’s major interest is to represent the employees. There are also dissimilarities between management goals and management structure and the aims and methods adopted by the unions, resulting in labor-management differences. Management usually wants to provide for a flexible work force that can respond quickly to mission needs. Labor, on the other hand, wants stability, security, and job protection for the worker. Management strives to stimulate competition among the workers and to identify the most efficient workers while the union works for the adoption of common work rules and methods of compensation or reward which tend to eliminate competition. What is, in this case, the better choice – to have separate union contracts for different plants or to have one master labor agreement? The negotiation table for a labor agreement resembles a battle field. Each participant fights for his own interest, throwing in all the weapons. Each side needs as much power as it can get. From a manager’s point of view it would be more advantageous to negotiate separate union contracts, as it faces a less powerful opponent. Power is determined by a number of factors. In the case on unions, size is the most important (size determined by the number of members). This is why with separate contracts the management may have an upper hand. But, on the other side of the coin lies a great expense of resources. Time and money are wasted when it comes to separate negotiations. However, the purpose is to maintain â€Å"industrial peace†, meaning that whatever the results of the negotiations, they must meet both sides’ exigencies. At the very heart of it, the labor agreement represents written policies and procedures created to ensure functionality and satisfaction. This is why negotiations are problem-centered; more time is spent on day-to-day problems than on defining abstract principles. Given the fact that current problems are usually very specific to a certain situation, it means that separated labor contract would have the advantage of dealing adequately with issues every time. A master agreement is in certain circumstances too general and irrelevant, leading to a variance between contract and practice. Although trying to cover all grounds in a written document is a lost cause, the contract has to be the foundation of the labor-management relationship, thus variances should be minimized. The aspects that escape the consideration of the negotiators have to be as few as possible. Another situation that may be encountered is a request for an increase of the wage at one of the plants. In the case of a master labor contract this would be resolved at a central level resulting in a waste of financial resources. But if the contracts were negotiated separately then the request could be met at an individual level. This would save money to the company. There are also other points to consider when deciding for a level of negotiation. Separate plants are located in different areas, characterized by different socio-economical factors. The area’s degree of development may influence the discussions, providing an extra set of arguments to one of the sides. The high unemployment rate, for example, turns the scale in favor of the employer, while a low one represents a vantage point for the union. Environment, the degree of education, the minimum wage, as well as other issues, add extra weight to one side of the balance. An investigation is required (such as an environmental analysis), in each particular situation, in order to determine the better choice. Regarding the administration of the contract there are a few aspects worth to be taken into consideration at this point. Separate contracts allow the management to deal with problems one at a time, whereas a centralization of the process reduces the degree of mobility and may even result in financial losses or crisis situations. It is true, no doubt about it, that it is easier to conduct one labor contract agreement for a number of plant locations. However, it is possible for the union to strike, closing down all the plants. As opposed to this undesirable situation, if you have separate contracts, the union can only strike one plant at a time, giving the management the time required to resolve the situation. Management must not take a unilateral action without first considering whether it has an obligation to discuss the action with the union. Matters of legitimate concern for the employees include: personnel policies, practices and working conditions. In these cases the management must provide the union an opportunity to negotiate. So, whenever the company wants to bring change into any one of these fields it has to consult the union and it the chance to express its position. In this case it is somewhat difficult to negotiate separate contracts. Bringing union representatives from each plant to the same negotiation table would require great synchronization and it would be a logistic nightmare. Also, to ease a smooth relationship with the employees, the management must inform them even concerning the changes that don’t have to be negotiated (retained management rights not subjected to negotiation). Another way management can help assure union understanding and, thus, facilitate efforts to properly administer the agreement, is to distribute brief explanations of at least the key parts of the agreement in order to avoid misunderstandings. Jointly prepared articles can be included in the installation bulletin and union paper. Similarly, labor and management can work together in the preparation of special bulletins explaining the contract as the situation demands. All these actions are easier to perform and less demanding in the case of a master labor agreement. Worker representation and participation in management, through the union, could plausibly increase productivity in one or both of two ways. In the first place, it could serve as a no pecuniary incentive for workers by reducing the monotony of work and enhancing the individual worker’s dignity and self-esteem. As a result, job satisfaction would be increased, and increased job satisfaction is allegedly conducive to higher productivity and lower unit costs. These would be even more true in the care of separate labor contracts. When the employees are represented by people they know or have a chance to meet and work with they will feel personally involved – an underlying bias in favor of â€Å"insiders†. This is also a way to increase employee loyalty. The evaluation process helps creating a better contract. In order to evaluate, the management has to communicate with the union members. Failure to â€Å"talk to the troops† is a problem that has been encountered with increasing regularity in the recent past in labor-management relations. Communications should take place regarding all actions affecting the work force. The management’s task is to make sure that the communications process works for, not against, management. There are two different aspects to be taken into consideration: the functional ones and the psychological ones. On a functional level, the communication process would be easier to sustain in the case of a master agreement, due to the fact that the management would deal with only a few union representatives. However, in the case of separate labor agreements, the communication would be more efficient because it would be more personal. The companies tend to be organized from the top down while unions tend to be organized from the bottom up. This is why the functional and the efficiency aspects of communication do not coincide in the two perspectives. How to cite The Federal Program for Labor Management, Essay examples

Bowen Family Systems free essay sample

Bowen Family System Theory Introduction In doing my studies on family/systemic counselling, I found Bowen’s theory intriguing. In my work and everyday life, I witness triangulation on a daily basis, from my own experience, without the awareness from this module, I was often entwined in triangulation. As a trainee therapist I decided to write my paper on Bowenian Therapy in order to gain a better understanding and develop my awareness. Murray Bowen, M. D. (31 January 1913 9 October 1990) was an American psychiatrist and a professor in Psychiatry at the Georgetown University. Bowen was among the pioneers of family therapy and founders of systemic therapy. â€Å"The family systems theory is a theory introduced by Dr. Murray Bowen that suggests that individuals cannot be understood in isolation from one another, but rather as a part of their family, as the family is an emotional unit. Families are systems of interconnected and interdependent individuals, none of whom can be understood in isolation from the system† (Genopro. com 18/11/2010) Bowen’s interest in family began as he was practicing as a psychiatrist in the 1940s. He focused on schizophrenic patient’s emotional relationships with their mothers. Others have called it a symbiosis relationship, but for him it was only an exaggerated natural process of emotional relationship. In 1954 he started to hospitalize the entire family of the sick (schizophrenic) person. He found out that the entire family suffered with the sick person emotionally. He also studied the relationship between mother-child symbioses. This involved a certain repetitive pattern, where he observed alternating patterns of closeness and distance. They portrayed sensitive emotional tensions caused by separation anxiety and incorporation anxiety. In 1959 he started working with families with less severe problems. Surprisingly these families displayed the same problems as the disturbed families. He concluded that there is no discontinuity between the normal and disturbed families but vary along a continuum line of emotional fusion to differentiation. Bowen was one of the first to realize that the history of our family creates a template which shapes the values, thoughts, and experiences of each generation, as well as how that generation passes down these things to the next generation. Bowens theory focuses on the balance of two forces togetherness and individuality. Too much togetherness can prevent individuality, or developing ones own sense of self whereas too much individuality results in a distant and estranged family. The theory looks at the family as a system and describes the complex interactions that exist in any one unit. The way members of a family are connected and the way they react to one another makes the functioning of family members interdependent. According to the theory, mental illness happens as a result of emotional fusion. This can happen when there is an increase in the level of emotions and anxiety in the family. Bowen introduced eight interlocking concepts to explain family development and functioning. Below I will provide an overview of each concept. Differentiation of Self The first concept is Differentiation of Self, or the ability to separate feelings and thoughts. Undifferentiated people can not separate feelings and thoughts; They have difficulty thinking logically because when asked to think they are flooded with feelings, so this makes It difficult for them to base their responses on their own logical thinking. They also have difficulty differentiating between their feelings and the feelings of others. They look to their family to define how they think about issues, feel about people, and interpret their experiences. Differentiation is the process of freeing yourself from your familys processes to define yourself so you can have different opinions and values than your family members, but are still capable of staying emotionally connected to them. It means being able to calmly reflect on a conflicted interaction afterward, realising your wn role in it, and then choosing a different response for the future. Triangles Triangles are the basic units of systems. They balance between closeness and distance. The third person or party brings unity and creates continuity in warring situation. The triangle brings stressed person into a manageable level of operation. This involves true listening and gives a true advice for a better solution. In it virtually all relationships are shadowed by third parti es. For example when a couple have an argument, afterwards, one of the partners may call their friend to talk about the fight. The third person helps them reduce their anxiety and take action, or calm their strong emotions and reflect, and make decision. People who are more undifferentiated are likely to triangulate others and be triangulated whereas people who are differentiated cope well with life and relationship stress, and as a result are less likely to triangulate others or be triangulated. The Nuclear Family Emotional Process These are the emotional patterns in a family that continue over generations. This involves a modeling scenario where a family member models and imitates the behaviour and even the language of his or her parents. For example, a parent who teaches his or her children to be happy when things are ok and sad when things are bad shapes the future thinking of those children. Here the parent passes on an emotional view of the world (the emotional process), which is taught throughout generation from parent to a child, in a nuclear family. Reactions to this process can range from open conflict, to physical or emotional problems in one family member, to reactive distancing. This will bring problems with family members like substance abuse, mental illness and irresponsibility. The Multigenerational Transmission Process This process entails the way family emotional processes are transferred and maintained over generations. This captures how the whole family joins in The Family Projection Process, for example, by reinforcing the beliefs of the family. As the family continues this pattern over generations, they also refer back to previous generations (Hes just like his Uncle he was always irresponsible too or Shes just like your cousin Mary she was divorced four times. ). Sibling Position Bowen believed In sibling order and that each child had a place in the family hierarchy. He believed that the oldest sibling was more likely to be seen as overly responsible and mature whilst the youngest as overly irresponsible and immature. Emotional Cut-off Emotional cut-off refers to the techniques people use to reduce anxiety from their unresolved emotional issues with parents, siblings, and other members from the family of origin. Some people seek distance either by moving away physically or emotionally using silence, diversion or avoidance of difficult and hurtful topics. To avoid sensitive issues, they may move away from their families and refuse to go home regularly. This strategy may work in the short term to reduce immediate anxiety but over time, the deeper, unresolved problems are toxic towards other relationships. An open relationship is the opposite of emotional cut-off. It is the best way to reduce a familys over-all anxiety. Continued low anxiety permits family members who would like to, to begin the slow steps to better differentiation. Bowen wrote, It might be difficult for a family with severe cut-offs to begin more emotional contact with the extended family, but any effort toward reducing the cut-off with the extended family will soften the intensity of the family problem, reduce the symptoms, and make any kind of therapy far more productive. Societal Emotional Processes The concept of societal emotional process describes how the emotional system governs behaviour on a societal level, promoting both progressive and regressive periods in a society. Cultural forces are important in how a society functions but are insufficient for explaining the rise and fall in how well societies adapt to the challenges that face them. The society’s attitudes towards for example different races, cl asses, genders and sexual orientation, have definite effects on the family. In many ways, this is like the Family Projection Process scaled up to the level of a society as a whole. The way a family deals with prejudice, discrimination and persecution is instinctively passed on to their children so that they can survive in their unique environment. The coping practices of the parents and extended family may lead to more or less adaptive emotional health for the family and its members. Normal Family Development According to Bowen, all families lie along a continuum. Bowen believed that all families lie on a spectrum or continuum and that it is difficult to try to classify families into types. If circumstances change, one type of family could change and become another type of family. For this reason, Bowen is credited with being one of the first culturally sensitive family therapists. A normal, adjusted family will have tensions and anxieties but will be balanced in terms of their togetherness and differentiation. A normal family will have good emotional balance and recognise that some problems are external and others come from the individual. There are connections between the different generations in the family and also to the extended family. The transitions for example from adolescence to adulthood are smooth and supported by the wider family. Past pains and joys are shared. Bowen says no matter how we transform and forget the past, these memories of our relationship, still stay alive in us. The danger is the way our former family attachment will shape our new family. At various times difficulties in different relationships, sometimes called dyads, are resolved without drawing in others into their difficulties. The ability to tolerate and support family members with different views supports differentiation and is a sign of a healthy family. Awareness of external societal influences as well as the unique family influences helps a family to become well adjusted. During times of grief and loneliness for example, family members give space and allow the person opportunity to grow. A positive emotional atmosphere with a belief in the virtues of family builds normal family development. Finally, when family members depend on each ther for feedback and support rather than in co-dependent ways, the family develops healthily. Family Disorders Bowen believed that family problems result from emotional fusion, or from an increase in the level of anxiety in the family. He believed that the member with the symptom is the least differentiated member of the family, and is the one who has the least ability to resist the pull to become fused with another member. This person absorbs the anxiety and worries of t he whole family and has the least ability to separate their own thoughts and feelings from those of their family. Families face two kinds of problems. Vertical problems are passed down from one generation to the next. Thus, adults who had cold and distant relationships with their parents do not know how to have warm and close relationships with their children, and so pass down their own problems to their children. Horizontal problems are caused by environmental stressors or transition points in the family development. This may result from traumas such as a chronic illness, the loss of the family home, or the death of a family member. However, horizontal stress may also result from Social Emotional Processes, such as when a minority family moves from a like-minority neighbourhood to a very different neighbourhood, or when a family with traditional gender roles immigrates to a culture with very different views, and must raise their children there. The worst case for the family is when vertical and horizontal problems happen at once. Goals of Therapy Bowen’s therapy was not aimed at changing people or solving problems, it was basically geared towards: †¢ Helping families to inquire and explore their own roles in family problems Making them assume responsibility for their own problems†¢ People learning more about themselves and their relationships †¢ Decreasing emotional reactivity†¢ Improving self-focus †¢ Modifying dysfunctional patterns †¢ Evaluating progress of the family in terms of how they function now, as well as how adaptive they can be to future changes In general, the t herapist accomplishes this by giving less attention to specific problem they present with, and more attention to family patterns of emotions and relationships, as well as family structures of dyads and triangles. Techniques that are most prominent in the practice of Bowenian family systems therapy. Genogram: Bowen used what he termed a â€Å"family diagram† to collect and organise important data concerning the multigenerational family systems. In 1972 Guerin renamed the family diagram the â€Å"genogram. † The main function of the genogram is to organise data during the evaluation phase and to track relationship processes and key triangles over the course of therapy. In the process of assessment, the following are noted: the history of the presenting problems, exact dates are noted, history of the nuclear family, when the parents met, their courtship, their marriage, child rearing, where the family lived especially in relation to the location of the extended family, history of both spouses birth, sibling positions, facts about childhood, past and current functioning with parents The Therapy Triangle: This technique is based on the theoretical assumption that conflictual relationship processes within the family have activated key-symptom-related triangles in an attempt to re-establish stability; and the family will automatically attempt to include the therapist in the triangling process. If they succeed, therapy will be stalemated. On the other hand, if the therapist can remain free of reactive emotional entanglements, in other words, stay detriangled ,the family system and its members will calm down to the point where they can begin to work out s olutions to their dilemmas. Relationship Experiments: Relationship experiments are carried out around structural altercations in key triangles. The goal is to help the family members become aware of systems processes and learn to recognise their role in them. Thomas F. Fogarty developed experiments for use with emotional pursuers and distancers (lartin-drake. com 28/12/2010). Pursuers are encouraged to restrain their pursuit, stop making demands, and decrease pressure for emotional connection and see what happens in themselves and in the relationship. The exercise isn’t designed to be a magic cure, as some people have hoped, but to help clarify the emotional processes involved. Distancers are encouraged to move toward the other person and communicate personal thoughts and feelings, in other words, to find an alternative to either avoiding or capitulating to the others’ demands. Coaching: Coaching is the Bowenian alternative to the more emotionally involved role common to most other forms of therapy. By acting as a coach, the Bowenian therapist hopes to avoid taking over for patients or becoming embroiled in family triangles. The goal is increased understanding, increased self-focus, and more functional attachment to key family members. The I-Position: Taking a personal stand, saying what you feel, instead of what others are â€Å"doing†, is one of the most direct ways to break cycles of emotional reactivity. Bowenian therapists not only encourage clients to take I-Position, they also do so themselves. Another assumption in Bowenian therapy is that confrontation increases anxiety and decreases the ability to think clearly and see options. Therefore, displacing the focus, making it less personal and less threatening, is an excellent way to increase objectivity. This forms the basis for two related techniques, multiple family therapy and displacement stories. Conclusion In conclusion I believe that Bowen developed a comprehensive theory of family therapy which inspired generations. His theory describes how the family shapes the interplay of individuality and togetherness using six interlocking concepts which are: differentiation of self, triangles, nuclear family emotional process, family projection process, multigenerational transmission process and sibling position. In 1970 Bowen added two additional concepts: emotional cut-off and societal emotional process. Bowenian therapy is a process of active inquiry in which the therapist helps family members get past blaming and fault finding in order to face their own roles in family problems. The goals of Bowenian therapy are not to change people or to solve their problems. Instead they see therapy as an opportunity for people to learn more about themselves and their relationships so that they can assume responsibility for their own problems. Contents Introduction Differentiation of Self The Nuclear Family Emotional Process Triangles The Multigenerational Transmission Process Sibling Position Emotional Cut-off Societal Emotional Processes Normal Family Development Family Disorders Goals of Therapy Conclusion Bibliography Bibliography http://www. abacon. com/famtherapy/bowen. html (14/12/2010) http://www. anzjft. om/pages/articles/78. pdf (14/12/2010) http://www. bukisa. com/articles/293438_what-is-the-concept-of-bowen-family-therapyixzz14iOkMQpM (16/12/2010) http://www. genopro. com/genogram/fam ily-systems-theory/ (22/10/2010) http://www. houd. info/bowenTheory. pdf (22/10/2010) http://www. lartin-drake. com/distancer. pdf (22/10/2010) Bibliography http://www. abacon. com/famtherapy/bowen. html http://www. psychpage. com/learning/library/counseling/bowen. html http://www. bukisa. com/articles/293438_what-is-the-concept-of-bowen-family-therapy http://www. thebowencenter. org/ http://homepages. wmich. edu/~macdonal/SW 6680. 05/Friedman. Bow Contents Introduction

The Birth Of Venus Essay Example

The Birth Of Venus Paper The Birth of Venus is a painting familiar especially to those who know about mythology. Sandra Bottling wanted to show the birth of Venus one of the Greek gods In his own point of view. He demonstrates this by how he painted Venus and whom he painted in the drawing with Venus. He also shows it by the type of media he used and what he painted it on. For this painting, he had used tempera on canvas. HIS Inspiration for painting Venus came about during the Renaissance era. It Is one of the first non-biblical female nudes In Italian art (Birth of Venus). Bottling was Influenced to paint Venus from reading Homers Scripts. In particular, one of homers scripts was about how Crocus had clashed with his father Uranus. During the clash, Crocus emasculates Uranus and because he had done Venus Is born. In this work, he shows Venus coming of a shell nude covering her body In a modest way. It would signify not only her birth to a new world but also show humanism. The background of the painting shows the ocean which Is how she was able to be born In the first place (Botulisms Birth of Venus). Also, he Includes Zephyrs, the god of the wind and he Is shown holding on to a nymph named Colorist. We will write a custom essay sample on The Birth Of Venus specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Birth Of Venus specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Birth Of Venus specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The wind signifies a guidance so it would make sense to why Zephyrs is in the painting since he leading Venus. Furthermore, he also includes Pomona the goddess of the spring she awaits Venus with a mantle which is blowing in the wind from Zephyrs. It shows how Pomona is welcoming the new goddess. Moreover, he painted Venus in such a beautiful way that it shows that he had studied the subject of the painting. It demonstrates that Bottling had thoroughly thought over about how he would want to present Venus. Thus, Bottling had shown many symbols in his painting that corresponds to Homers work.

What is communism Essay Example

What is communism Essay Example What is communism Essay What is communism Essay â€Å"Communism is defined as a classless political system. It is a political theory or system in which all property and wealth is owned by all the members of that society.†(Microsoft Dictionary)In such a society, groups are the possessors of major resources as well as production means.s Theoretically, communism gives equal works and benefits to every society member.It derived from many resources like Plato’s Republic and also the early Christian community.Communism and World affairsWith ChinaInternational community were astonished in 1963 following disagreement between China and soviet union (USSR).The two countries had formerly been strong allies in cold war against America as well as Western Europe.With AmericaLeadership crises and alteration in international climate altered the America-Soviet relation post-1945.Cold war limit the mutual cooperation in 1962.America and Soviet Union had clashes over the activities of soviet in Cuba. USSR had close relation with Fidel Castro leadership in Cuba and assured him of help in case of American attack. Following stationing of missiles by Soviet in 1962 in Cuba. J.F Kennedy asked them to retreat and Khrushchev responded and commanded the withdrawal .Moscow was consistent in support to Cuban economy via trade and aids .The Cuban soldiers as well as the advisers assisted in the advancement of Soviet policy in both Asia and Africa post 1976.With other Asian countriesThe USSR backed the communist forces of Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam post-WWII and went into agreement of cooperation with him in 1950 .The USSR involve in Geneva accord in 1954 that divided the Vietnam into North and South .Support was given to Ho’s leadership in communist North when a fight broke out between US- backed anti-communist and communist forces that were out to reunite the country.With African countriesThe interest was stimulated following the decolonization and assumption of power by leaders in need of aid from Moscow in order to so lve their problems. In the 1960’s, the Congo DR Patrice Lumumba supported by Soviet Union was killed in a rebellion in 1961 .Kwame of Ghana and his socialist leadership were displaced in 1966. A friendly government was enthroned in Angola in 1970’s by Soviet union with the aid of Cuba.With western EuropeIn 1955, Soviet established relationship with the West Germany. They fuelled repeated crises between West and East Germany .Friendship with West Germany Improved by the end of the decade following the emergence of Social Democratic Government (SDG) in Bonn. South and West Germany signed agreement in 1970 renouncing the use of forces in settling disputes.The Demise of Soviet Unionâ€Å"Conflict over constitutional and economic issues brought the Soviet Union to the brink of civil war and prompted its disintegration into 15 volatile successor states in 1991†(Colton, Microsoft Encarta).To start with, the year 1985 marked a watershed in the communist rulership in Rus sia. Mikhail was promoted to the status of General Secretary. He had a vision of what to do to sustain communism in Russia making him to initiate a programme known as â€Å"Perestroika† targeted at assisting the rebuilding of government and military but the main aim was to facilitate Soviet living standard.Perestroica however turned out to be a failure. The year 1991 witnessed a sharp worsening of economy before the eyes of Gorberchev and he was helpless. Thereafter, the USSR voted out of reality in Dec 1991 and Gorbachev quitted as president of the former Soviet Union. Finally, communism destroyed the soviet empire. The bug of communism finally demised the last bit of energy from Russian nation in the period of 1980’s and 1990’s leading to the disintegration and demise of the Soviet Union.In conclusion, one of the major reasons for the demise of the communism is that the government failed to measure up to standard in her promise for a better quality of life to people Another factor is the failure of the government to properly handle both social and foreign affairs. The Challenge facing Russia now is the responsibility and a task that may be impractical, a voyage that may take many years. However it is believed that in the nearest future, Russia may regain a stable and well-balanced government.

Smith & Falmouth Online Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Smith & Falmouth Online - Essay Example This report describes the current culture at Smith & Falmouth as well as various controls for organizational performance. In addition, recommendations to better enhance the business are proposed. At Smith & Falmouth, it is a team-oriented organization which relies on various professional and technical expertise to accomplish sizeable projects mandated at the strategic level. As a team leader, the Chief Operational Officer acts as the project leader, dictating the activities of various colleagues (at similar levels in the management hierarchy) and subordinate peers. This team-oriented philosophy consists of a leader who directs the activities of the group, demanding compliance and routine reporting on project activities. However, the transformational leadership style, according to two specific organizational theorists, involves a leader who also uses actions which are â€Å"visionary, values-based, emotional, intellectually-stimulating, and charismatic† (Antonakis and Hooijberg, 2008: 2). Having a project team leader who can be both the authoritarian and the inspirational leader provides a clear job description for the project leader and demands that the individual in this leadership role maintains the correct balance of personality to accomplish group unity and performance. This is very much a top-down organizational hierarchy where managers of the same level or business status cooperate via means of special projects, typical of many companies today, requiring transformational leadership. Transformational leaders should be more well-versed in psychological theory, as they often have to assess the self-worth of various staff individuals to determine how to involve the individual in group activities and to commit to organizational goals (Avolio and Bass, 2002). The Chief Operations Officer is continuously praised for their dedication to the project and their ability to coordinate group activities

Humanities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Humanities - Essay Example tarts with a statement ‘it is a truth acknowledged, universally, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife† (Austen 1813, pg. 3). This statement clearly tells us that this desire that is universally recognized. It is, however, a desire that is not inward. Not everyone who has a wealth wants to marry, if one ends up marrying and yet his desire is not to be married then it means he ends up living unauthentic life. Far from, your own true desires. You are not genuine in short. Community policies seem to dictate our lives. Most of these social rules and policies have to do with class and position in the society. If you are rich, a governor you end up relating with people of your own class and caliber. This is despite your desire to talk to the law in the society. Socially it is not accepted, and you end up being ridiculed (Austen 1813, pg. 8). The Benet family is connected to people who are in the trade. Therefore, they cannot associate with people who have inherited titles and wealth. If they do, it causes tension among aristocrats such as Lady Catherine de Bourgh. This book also shows the â€Å"polite† policies which the people engage in through the novel. For example, civilized people are expected to behave by the unspoken rules of the community. The rules are automatic. They do not show the real desires of an individual. This shows the effect of peoples beliefs. When Elizabeth is engaged to dance with Mr. Collins during the ball at Netherï ¬ eld, for example, she feels chagrin at his enforcing that request despite her obvious lack of desire for his company. Honestly, the set code of conduct as required by the society make people do things if they had a choice to refuse they would do without a blink. Nevertheless, the repercussions of refusing to act as required leave you with no other choice but to act (Austen 1813, pg. 15). Austen examines the numerous strains sandwiched between desires and â€Å"unanimously approved† like

Ethical Issues Of Euthanasia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Ethical Issues Of Euthanasia - Essay Example In this modern world, despite the progress that has been made both in science and technology and in particular in the regulations and law field, there is still a lot of controversy and ambiguity over the notion of euthanasia ( the peaceful death). Therefore, this ethical dilemma may impose the legal and ethical risk on health care providers. The legal and ethical aspects of the notion of euthanasia are commonly debated in many countries. Several opinions are offered which are based on the principles of religious beliefs and personal morality. Hence, researchers and scientists are still trying to reach a general consensus on this dilemma that is ethical in nature (Somerville, 2001).In countries that practice the Islamic faith, there are debates and discussions on withdrawing or withholding the life support therapies or giving a patient at the end of life the freedom to choose peaceful death. Healthcare providers have no protection or immunity if they decide to help a patient die based on the Islamic law. Therefore, from the point of view of Islam, a patient has no right to die voluntarily since life is an opportunity to refine the spirit and is a divine trust. Thus, nobody has the right to end a human life by interfering through active assistance (McDougall et al., 2008).Therefore, withdrawing or withholding treatment of a patient is very difficult and can never be universal without considering the social, religious and cultural factors when it comes to decision making.

Impact Of SMEs On Economic Development

Impact Of SMEs On Economic Development CHAPTER 4 Small businesses contribute substantially to two fundamentals of poverty reduction job creation and economic growth (The World Bank Group). In the previous chapter we examined a complete picture of MA in the theory of banking and at offering economic evaluation and strategic analyses of the process, also high lighting the performance of commercial banks in post consolidation period in Nigeria. It then viewed the benefits, consequences and limitations of MA and concluded with recent estimates of the effects of bank consolidation on Small Business Lending. In this chapter we shall be looking at the roles of SMEs, its benefits and impacts on the economic development. We shall also be looking at how SME get funded and the main sources of cash. Finally we will compare this credit availability to SMEs before consolidation and after consolidation in the Nigerian banking sector 4.0 Introduction Small enterprises are the seeds of the private sector, and also the source of innovation and diversification. They supply larger companies and develop their own activities and product lines. When they grow, they provide employment and tax revenues. Small and medium-sized enterprises can be the motors of economic growth. In most African countries, however, the business environment is not conducive to enterprise development ( Bercy, 2005 ). Small and Medium scale Enterprises (SMEs) are important for successful economic growth and social development. SMEs, properly supported, foster Entrepreneurship a proven pre-requisite for national economic success. Public and private policy support of SMEs is most effective when SMEs are part of the formal sector. One key objective therefore is to encourage migration of SMEs from informal to formal sector (Oyekanmi, 2006) Nigerian SMEs in informal sector are beyond the reach/help of public or private policy Policies do not provide sufficient support Difficult access to finance To use SMEs to stimulate economic growth and encourage businesses requires SMEs to move from informal sector to formal sector. 4.1 Definition of SMEs SME is an acronym for small and medium enterprise. It is a term that is used in a different way in different country and used differently even within the same industries. In the United States for instant SMEs can be used to express firms from small office home office to even large company. In Europe SMEs is used to refer to a business firm or company that has fifty to two hundred and fifty employees with an annual turnover of seven to forty million euro. Yet these SMEs must have a total asset less than twenty-seven million euro. In Canada, the industry uses the term SMEs as a reference to any company that has less than five hundred employees while categorizing company with employees above this number as large business. The definition of SMEs is country specific which is measured on size and level of development. In Nigeria SMEs are the moral fibres of the economy, a large percentage of businesses in Nigeria employ less than one hundred employees (Oyekunmi, 2006). This segment provides fifty percent of employment and fifty percent of the total industrial output. This can be said that most of the developing nations, its private economy comprises totally of SMEs and seen as the only reasonable employment opportunity for communities ( Oyekunmi, 2006) 4.2 Impact of SMEs on Economic Development Nowadays, the importance of SMEs has been recognised worldwide and their immense involvement to economic growth, community organisation, employment, catalysts of growth, innovation and skills and development. SMEs account for over 95% of enterprise and 60%-70% of employment, and generate a large share of new jobs in Organisation for economic Co-operation and development economies. (OECD Africa). Since the dawn of industrial changes and globalisation the importance and contribution of small firms is enhance as the economies of scale reduces. Nevertheless a lot of the conventional problems SMEs faces have also become more acute in this global environment. Such problems as lack of funding or credit availability, problems in utilization of technology, constrained managerial capabilities, regulatory weight down and low yield. Since every economy stands to gain from SMEs precise strength and weakness, policy framework and the role of government must evolve for these enterprises to flourish , adapt to new demands and strains and to reap the benefit of globalisation. For this reason encouraging entrepreneurship is high on the agenda of governments in OECD member countries, developed and developing economies. The importance of entrepreneurship stands out in this time of innovative change, and fostering a climate to help the dynamism in firm creation is considered fundamental worldwide.( OECD African Economic Outlook ,2009) 4.3 Role of SMEs to Economy Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) occupy a place of pride in virtually every country or state. Because of their significant roles in the development and growth of various economies, they have been referred to as the engine of growth and the vehicle for socio- economic change of any country. SMEs are seen as an authentic medium for the realization of national economic objectives of poverty alleviation and employment generation at low investment cost. Another benefit of SMEs includes access to the infrastructural facilities made available by the very existence on these enterprises. Also the spur of economic activities through supplies of items produced, distribution process stemming from rural to urban centre, enhances the standard of living of the employees and their families as well as those who directly and indirectly related with them ( Onuorah, 2010). The benefits of SMEs are innumerable and cannot be exaggerated. These benefits are summarized below. Economy contribution in the provision of outputs in form of goods and services. Generation of employment involves creation of jobs at relatively low capital cost. And the employment opportunities provided reduces village to city (rural-urban) migration and allows for even development Utilization of local resources: This promotes the use of local raw materials requiring simple technology SMEs help to reduce income disparity by developing a group of both skilled and semi-skilled workers as a basis for expansion Income generation: SMEs constitute major avenues for income generation and participation in economic activities in the lower income and rural brackets of developing societies especially in agriculture, trading and services. Stiglitz and Weis (1981) observe that small and medium scale firms with opportunities to invest in positive net present value projects may be blocked from doing so because of adverse selection and moral hazard problems. This selection problem occurs when providers of funds cannot validate the firms access to quality projects. While the hazard problems is related with the possibility of SMEs diverting funds to alternative projects or taking more risks than they can afford to. (Ogujiuba, Ohuche, Adenuga, 2004). Since SMEs ordinarily do not have access to public funds through the capital market, they obviously have to depend on banks for funding. The reliance on banks makes them even more vulnerable for the simple reason that crisis in the financial system can have a great impact to credit supply to SMEs, thus, SMEs are subject to funding problems in equilibrium and these problems are worsening during periods of financial instability. Berger and Udell (2001) further note that shocks to the economic environment in which both banks and SMEs exist can significantly affect the willingness and capability of banks to lend to small and medium scale firms. Government worldwide have realised the importance of SMEs and have encouraged them by originating and creating policies that are favourable to encourage, support and make funding accessible. To encourage the developments in small and medium enterprise are a plus as the role SMEs plays in economic development. (Oladele, 2009). 4.4 SMEs Promotion in Nigerian The Nigerian government has supported the SMEs development programs since its independence, yet very few of which have yielded impressive results. Now the challenge is to recognise the factors that influence their performance and development as well as the implications of these factors for policy. Ever since the attainment of independence in Nigeria, every known regime recognizes the importance of promoting SMEs as the basis of economic growth. As a result, several micro lending institutions were established to enhance the development of SMEs. Unfortunately, records indicate that the performance of SMEs in Nigeria has not justified the establishment of this overabundance of micro-credit institutions. Odedokun (1981) notes that in spite of the quantum of credit made available to the SME manufacturing sector; the contribution of the index of manufacturing to GDP was only 7 percent between 1970 and 1979. Source: CBN Annual Report, 2008 The major credit programs and specialized credit delivery institutions implemented to promote SMEs in Nigeria between the year 1971 to 1997 includes: The small scale industries 1971, agricultural credit guarantee scheme (ACGSF)of 1973, the Nigerian Agricultural and Co-operative Bank of 1973, the Nigerian bank for Commerce and Industry of 1973, the small and medium scale enterprises loan scheme 1 2 of 1992, National Economic Reconstruction Fund of 1994 and The Family Economic Advancement Program of 1997.( Oyekunmi, 2006). Others includes micro credit institutions include the Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry (NBCI), National Economic Reconstruction Fund (Nerfund), the Peoples Bank of Nigeria (PBN), the Community Banks (CB), and the Nigerian Export and Import Bank (NEXIM), and the liberalization of the banking sector. (Ogujiuba, Ohuche, Adenuga, 2004). In addition there has been an entrepreneurship development centres in three zones since 2008, which is has trained nine thousand people and is expected to create about five hundred and twenty-five thousand jobs in three to five years. Most of these programmes failed due to poor administration in loan processing and credit procedure, poor monitoring techniques and the abuse of the scheme attributed to corruption (Oyekunmi, 2006). CBN initiated together with the Bankers Committee In 1999, an interventionist strategy called the Small and Medium Industries Equity Investment Scheme (SMIEIS). This scheme requires banks to set aside 10 percent of their profit before tax to fund SMEs in an equity participation framework. (Ogujiuba, 2004). SMIEIS requires all banks in Nigeria to set aside 10% of their PBT for equity investment in SMEs (revised to 5% from end 2006) ( Oyekunmi, 2006) According to Mambula (1997), since its independence, the small business development programs have generally yielded poor results, despite the immense amount of money invested by the Nigerian government. But this can be associated to the fact that these funds hardly reached the SMEs business because funds got lost to bureaucratic bottle neck and end up in accounts of public office holders. It has however been worrisome that despite the incentives, policies, programmes and support aimed at revamping the SMEs, they have performed rather below expectation in Nigeria. 4.5 Funding opportunity for SMEs To assist SME development, priority should be given to financial reforms and appropriate financing. Effective financing of SMEs should include regulatory reform the creation of a friendly business environment for doing business, the extension of guarantees to local banks to entice them to lend in local currency (e.g. USAID Development Credit Program), tax incentives for rewarding companies that agree to have their financial statements audited, the creation of equity funds suitable for SMEs, financial incentives for partnerships, etc. (Bercy, 2005). SMEs being very unique and important and because of their relative small size can be negatively affected by changes in the financial institution especially banks during crisis period. The credit availability to SMEs is very important and significant not only from a theoretical point of view but also for policy purposes. In many countries different innovation have enthused extensive restructuring in the financial sector. Commercial banks have engaged in mergers and acquisitions, which has lead to the vanishing of many small credit institutions and appearance of complex financial conglomerates. Merger has open previously isolated markets due to the lifting of geographical barriers hence reducing market segmentation. SMEs can be funded in two major ways; internal finance, concerned with getting money from personal savings and from friends and relatives and external finance when the company grows and begins to expand. External financing is sourced from most financial institutions. There are two notable variants of external finance and these include debt financing and equity financing. Dept financing engages interest bearing instruments and are secured by asset collateral and have term structured into it. This can be long termed or short termed. Examples of dept finance include loans, overdrafts, leasing and hire purchase arrangement and letters of credit. Equity financing allows the banker or investor the right of ownership in the business. This as such may not require collateral since the equity participant will be part of the management of the business. ( Ogujiuba et all, 2004). We have seen the two approaches to overcome financial gap to SMEs. This approach has been further encouraged by two approaches. The first has been to broaden the collateral based approach by encouraging bank lenders to finance SMEs with insufficient collateral. The second approach is to broaden the viability based approach since its concerned with the business itself and the aim has been to provide an increase return in the general business, create a favourable environment and reduce risk. Viability based financing is especially associated with venture capital. This often entails a detailed review and assistance with the business plan. A common aim or feature of the viability based approach is the provision of appropriate finance that is tailored to the cash flows of the SME. (Berger and Udell, 2005). Levy in 1993 reported that smaller enterprises have limited access to financial resources compare to larger organisations and he discussed the impact of his findings in economic growth. SMEs funding is supplied through the business financial market in the following Retained Profit The Financial Market The use of banks. Government monetary policy 4.5.1 Retained Profit In the course of running a business profits are made, when these profits are kept for future use to expand the business it is referred to as retained profit. This profit is there for use to help buy new machinery, vehicle, computer etc to improve the business and keeps it going. On the other hand the retain earnings can be used to expand the business by diversification. And it can also be kept for a rainy day. 4.5.2 Financial Market The financial Market is a system that allows buying and selling of financial securities and instruments. It is a centre where bonds and stock are traded, and allows people to buy or sell commodities such as precious metals or agricultural good and other items of value at low transaction costs. Both general markets (where many commodities are traded) and specialized markets (where only one commodity is traded) exist. In finance, financial markets facilitate: The raising of capital (in the capital markets) The transfer of risk (in the derivatives markets) International trade (in the currency markets) The financial market matches those who want to buy with those who want to see. Money market is one component of the financial market for asset involved in short term borrowing and lending usually not exceeding one year. Trades in the money market involve T-bills, Commercial Papers (CP), bankers acceptance, Certificate of Deposits (CD) and both mortgage and asset backed securities. 4.5.3 Banks The systems of banking in Africa are not properly adapted to lending to SMEs with some exceptions. This makes financing a more difficult approach, hence making financing more flexible would be a welcoming help (Bercy, 2005). All over the world the importance of promoting SMEs as a channel of growth and industrialization has been recognized. One of the vital roles of the banks is to devise a way to creating loan package and providing loans to small business that are otherwise not properly informed. (Berger, Klapper and Udell 2001). Conversely credit provision to small borrowers may be affected by a number of factors. Bank consolidation is one of the major factor affecting credit to small borrowers. The creation of mega bank suggests that large institution devote less of their asset proportion to lending to small business than smaller less complex institution. ( Emeni and Okafor, 2008) .These mega banks may be oriented towards transaction lending and providing capital markets services to large corporate clients. These institutions often have their headquarters in business metropolis far away city centre that are a great distant from small borrower. Ogujiuba, Ohuche and Adenuga, 2004) Banks in Nigeria although reported to being highly liquid and wanting to make loans available, they are usually put off by the uncertain nature of SMEs. And since these banks do not provide the necessary funds required to start a business, run the business and keeps it going, SMEs tend to rely on personal assets for their working capital. This reliance on personal funds makes it very difficult to operate at optimum capacity, increase output and make sales. It also limits investment to develop, expand operation or even improve technology. This risk on bank not lending is attributed to lack of information on SMEs true situation in terms of finance and their performance ability to repay loans both principal and interest. And since the judicial system is not reliable, banks cannot enforce contracts, hence making business environment generally risk prone and uncertain.(Ogujiuba, Ohuche and Adenuga, 2004) The table below show the proportion of loans given to SMEs by commercial banks. It gives a brief summary for six years from 2000- 2005 of the ratio of loans given to SMEs to the total credit available to commercial banks in Nigeria. From this table it can be deduce that percentage of loans made available to SMEs is very low and over the years it reduces even more to a more trivial proportion. Table 4.1 Ratio of Loans to SMEs to Commercial Banks Total Credit YEAR Loan to SMEs (=N=M) Commercial Bank Total Credit (=N=M) Ratio of Loan to Total Credit (%) 2000 44,542.3 508,302.2 9.7 2001 52,428.4 796,164.8 6.6 2002 82,368.4 954,628.8 8.6 2003 90,176.5 1,210,033.1 7.5 2004 54,981.2 1,519,242.7 3.6 2005 50,672.6 1,899,346.4 2.7 Source: Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin Volume 16, 2005 4.5.4 Government policy (New Monetary Policy) The Nigeria Government in a bid to encourage small and medium scale enterprises has introduced several monetary policies. This has been mentioned in the previous chapters. The success of this strategy is based on its proper implementation, co-ordination and supervision. These monetary policies includes: The Small and Medium Enterprise Equity Investment Scheme (SMEEIS), the Small and Medium Enterprises Credit Guarantee Scheme (SMECGS) and the Microfinance Banks and Micro Credit Fund. 4.5.4.1 Small and Medium Enterprises Equity Investment Scheme (SMEEIS) The Small and Medium Enterprises Equity Investment Scheme is a voluntary initiative of the Bankers Committee in agreement with CBN, approved IN 1999. It was aimed at mitigating the risk-averse behaviour of banks. The scheme was a responds by the federal government to the promotion of small and medium enterprises as a tool of industrialization, poverty alleviation and job creation or employments. This scheme required all commercial banks in Nigeria to set aside annually ten percent of their profit before tax (PBT) for promotion of small and medium enterprises and equity investments. This was the banks own contribution in responds to the federal governments efforts in economic growth. This takes care of the burden of all financial charges such interest under normal bank lending. In addition the scheme provides financial, advisory, technical and managerial support from the banking industry. ( Soludo, 2005). Activities approved for funding under the scheme includes manufacturing, constru ction, Information technology, education, tourism and services. The funds set aside by banks under the scheme increased from N13.1 billion in 2002 to N41.4 billion in 2005. However, actual investments grew much slower from N2.2 billion in 2002 to N12.1 billion in 2005, representing only 29.1 per cent of the funds set aside. This further increased to N21billion in 2007 representing a further 21.5 per cent of funds set aside. (CBN Statistical Bulletin, 2008) Figure 4.2 Banks Investment in SMEs through SMEEIS Source: CBN Statistical Bulletin, 2008 Table 4.1 SME Reserve for Small and Medium Scale Industry of Top Five Commercial Banks in Nigeria. (NM) Zenith First Bank UBA Union Bank Intercontinental 2009 3,729,204 11,193,000 2008 3,729,204 9,439,000 2,635,000 3,868,498 2007 3,729,204 7,916,000 2,635,000 5,537,000 3,868,498 2006 3,729,204 6,998,000 2,635,000 4,931,000 2,387,122 2005 2,580,324 1,379,000 2,050,000 4,429,000 1,527,532 2004 1,224,242 1,379,000 1,426,000 3,491,000 856,935 2003 1,224,242 1,379,000 865,000 2,280,000 856,935 Source: Annual Reports of the Various Banks Various studies have pointed out that inadequate data on SMEs business activities and the vague scope of economic activities are some of the major issues constraining disbursement of funds under the scheme. Two very important policy actions were than taken by the Bankers Committee in 2005, to restructure the scheme so it could take proper effect. The first policy action was to implement the funding of all business activities with the exception of general commerce and financial services under this scheme. It was restructured to contain and provide for non-industrial enterprises so that other sectors of the economy such as agriculture, housing, transport and utilities can be funded under this scheme. The name of the scheme was, therefore, changed to Small and Medium Enterprises Equity Investment Scheme (SMEEIS), to reflect the expanded focus. The Bankers Committee also embarked setting the guidelines for the management of withdrawn un-invested funds during the year. The second policy a ction was to set the limit of banks equity investment in a single enterprise. This was increased from N200 million to N500 million, thus accommodating the real medium sized industries that constitute the missing middle in Nigerias industrial structure. These two policies had an instantaneous impact on the scheme as investment rose by 29.4 per cent in 2005 to N12.1 billion. The cumulative amount set aside by the banks at end- December 2005 stood at N41.4 billion, compared with N28.8 billion at the end of the preceding year 2004. The final benefit of this policy is expected to manifest fully from 2006, following the success on bank consolidation exercise in 2005. (CBN Annual Report, 2005). 4.5.4.2 Small and Medium Enterprises Credit Guarantee Scheme (SMECGS) CBN established the Small and Medium Enterprises Credit Guarantee Scheme (SMECGS). This scheme was set up in a bid to ease the rigid nature of the credit market in Nigeria, to also augment credit to the real sector and complement its 500 billion Naira Power/Manufacturing facility; the Management of the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) approved the establishment of a N200 billion Small and Medium Enterprises Credit Guarantee Scheme (SMECGS), to promoting access to credit to manufacturers and SMEs in Nigeria. It is funded one percent and managed by CBN. The aim ideas behind this scheme is to fast track the development of SMEs and the manufacturing sectors in Nigeria as a whole by providing guarantees, creating an atmosphere favourable for industrialization, increasing the accessibility of credit and generate employment. ( Soludo, 2006) 4.5.4.3 Microfinance Banks and Micro Credit Fund The Microfinance Policy Regulatory and Supervisory framework was a major policy initiative of the Bank in 2005 after consolidation of banks. Microfinance Banks and Micro Credit Fund was a replacement to community banks with a deadline to microfinance bank latest December 2007. The policy, among others, addresses the problem of lack of access to credit by entrepreneurs who do not have access to regular banks; strengthens the weak capacity of such entrepreneurs, and raises the capital base of microfinance institutions. The key elements of this framework was to set aside not less than one percent of the annual budget by state governments and local government for on lending through the microfinance banks, in addition to endorse and authorise the management of microfinance banks, establishment of the micro credit funds and introduce deposit insurance for micro finance banks to protect depositors funds. Problems associated with Credit availability for SMEs According to Cork and Nisxon, (2000) poor management and accounting practices have hampered the ability of smaller enterprises to raise finance. Owning to the nature of small business and the personal lifestyle of individual owners, goes a long way to affect operations and sustainability of the business. As a consequence of the ownership structure, some of these businesses are unstable and may not guarantee returns in the long run. However, there is reason to hope because according to Liedholm et al. (1994), a large number of small enterprises fail because of non-financial reasons. Remmers et al. (1974) reported the debt/total assets ratio to be independent of firm size while Peterson and Schulman (1987) reported that debt/total assets ratio to first rise and then fall with size of firm. Whatever sides you choose to take, the granting of loans to SMEs depends solely on the decision of the loan granting institution. And this choice is also depended on size of the balance sheet of the SMEs. The general problems associated with credit availability for SMEs everywhere is summarized below. Bad Credit History An adverse borrowing history of SMEs particularly if it is involving a sister organization will discourage the lender. The logical presumption is that if you do not have a good credit history then that is indicative of a personality pattern which means that in the future you will face the same problems as you are trying to clear you refinancing initiative. The bank is then well advised to stay away from you or at the very most offer you some very stringent terms for borrowing. Poor business plans Most SMEs applying for loans do not present convincing feasibility studies or attractive business plans. They are therefore regarded as high-risk ventures. Lack of Collateral Thirdly, even those SMEs with business plans not backed by adequate collateral. The lack of adequate collateral would be unacceptable risk for the lender. As banks cannot afford to take any chances of non-repayment of loans, they insist on these collateral requirements being met. In as much as they have nothing to fall back on should you default on your loan repayment obligations? Good financial management requires that they do not accept a refinancing initiative until they are sure that you are more than capable of covering the full loan if circumstances demand it. Collateral is the final reserve to meet this criteria and if it is missing, then the decision is likely to be negative. The impact of regulatory and monetary factors on bank loan The result is that monetary policy effects on bank lending depend on the capital adequacy of the banking sector; lending by banks with low capital has a delayed and then amplified reaction to interest rate shocks, relative to well-capitalized banks. Other implications are that bank capital affects lending even when the regulatory constraint is not momentarily binding, and that shocks to bank profits, such as loan defaults, can have a persistent impact on lending. Financial crisis Again bank financial distresses may also be an important determinant of credit availability during periods of credit crunch and accompanying financial crises. However, there are very few small firms that will satisfy the rigorous condition set by the traditional feasibility appraisal model, which is often designed for both small and big firms. While some aspects of the criteria of the feasibility model are met by some small firms, others are not met at all, therefore for banks to lend , they need to develop lending rules that accommodate the peculiar characteristics both for the SMEs and their owners. Other reasons In addition, many SMEs do not hold deposit accounts in the formal banking sector, which the banks require from loan applicants. Another reason SMEs were not given any concessions in terms of loan conditions was that in Nigeria no law exists to protect bankers against default. Yet another reason banks resist loans to SMEs is the unwillingness of owner/managers to acquire formal training. Such training is useful in providing added expertise and competence in a chosen field of business and in improving chances of obtaining loans.( Mambula, 2002) THE END .

Literary Allusion in Women of Brewster Place, Linden Hills, and Mama Da

Literary Allusion in Women of Brewster Place, Linden Hills, and Mama Day      Ã‚  Ã‚   Gloria Naylor has endeavored to overcome the obstacles that accompany being an African-American woman writer.   In her first three novels, The Women of Brewster Place, Linden Hills, and Mama Day, Naylor succeeds not only in blurring the boundary between ethnic writing and classical writing, but she makes it her goal to incorporate the lives of African-Americans into an art form with universal appeal.   Gloria Naylor explains this struggle by stating, "The writers I had been taught to love were either male or white.   And who was I to argue that Ellison, Austen, Dickens, the Brontes, Baldwin and Faulkner weren't masters?   They were and are.   But inside there was still the faintest whisper: Was there no one telling my story?" (qtd. in Erickson 232).   Naylor, in her quest to make the western cannon more universal, readapts the classics.   By the use of allusions to the themes and structures of Shakespeare and Dante in her first three novels, Naylor revises the classics to encompass African-Americans.       In The Women of Brewster Place, Naylor's allusions to Shakespeare's comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream reinterpret the bard to depict the plight of African-American women.   Naylor incorporates themes of A Midsummer Night's Dream into the life of Cora Lee, a resident of the Brewster Place housing project.   Cora Lee, whose existence is dominated by the responsibilities and demands of raising her children, escapes into the vacuousness of television soap operas.   However, Cora Lee's lifestyle is temporarily modified when she is invited to attend a production of A Midsummer Night's Dream.   According to Peter Erickson, the play "...inspires in Cora Lee... ...ills.   New York: Penguin, 1985. _____.   Mama Day.   New York: Vintage Contemporaries, 1993. _____.   The Women of Brewster Place.   New York: Penguin, 1980. Perry, Donna. Backtalk: Women Writers Speak Out.   New Brunswick, New   Jersey: Rutgers, 1993. Saunders, James Robert.   "The Ornamentation of Old Ideas: Naylor's First Three Novels."   Hollins Critic 27 (1990).   Rpt. in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present.   New York: Amistad, 1993. Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night's Dream.   Ed. Roma Gill.   Oxford: Oxford, 1981. _____.   The Tempest.   Eds. Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine.   New York: Washington Square, 1994. Ward, Catherine C.   "Linden Hills: A Modern Inferno."   Contemporary Literature 28 (1987), 67-81.  Ã‚   Rpt. in Gloria Naylor: Critical Perspectives Past and Present.   New York: Amistad, 1993.  Ã‚